Johnny Jr. Marquez

Recently, the Philippines has been experiencing a handful of natural disasters, such as the peak of El Niño from November 2023 to January 2024 and the most recent onslaught of typhoons like Kristine, Enteng, and Carina. 


These disasters, which not only pose health and safety risks among the public but also left the Philippines with widespread infrastructure damage, a wounded economic landscape, and thousands of deaths, highlight the pressing need to address climate change on both local and global scales as it directly affects the possibility of more severe disasters in the future, according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS).

Philippines and its vulnerability

The Philippines is home to over 7,000 islands, an archipelagic country characterized by rich biodiversity and vibrant landscapes. However, beyond its distinctive qualities, it is one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change due to its geographical location, which, according to the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAG-ASA), generally produces heavy rains, making it exposed to frequent tropical cyclones, storm surges, and strong winds, resulting in heavy casualties among the public such as destruction of crops and properties.

PAG-ASA also stated that an average of 20 tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) every year, with the most intense coming between July to October, causing extreme flooding and landslides in various affected areas. As one of the most destructive calamities, floods can result in millions or even billions of pesos of damage to economic infrastructures by causing corrosion to electrical connections, infiltrating sewer lines, and disrupting internet connections. It also causes the loss of agricultural livestock and could force human displacement, adding to the emotional impact on the affected individuals. 

Poverty also plays a crucial role in Filipinos’ vulnerability to climate change consequences, according to a study by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). This is reflected in the shortages of food due to crop destruction that later on cause price inflation and affect predominantly poor families, as stated by the ADB Country Manager Kelly Bird. Additionally, families living in poverty are often the least protected from the impacts of climate disasters, with limited resources and support to adapt to the shifting realities of climate change.

Philippines’ contribution to climate change

While it is known that the Philippines is taking steps towards urbanization and modernization, such as movement of more people in urbanized cities, building of infrastructures, and high energy demand, certain issues still need to be addressed, specifically, anthropogenic factors such as greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and waste mismanagement that significantly exacerbate the impact of climate change.

Although a minor contributor globally, the Philippines' greenhouse gas emissions rank in the top 25 percent among low and middle-income countries, with projected significant increases in the coming decades. More than half of this emission comes from the energy sector and is expected to quadruple in 2030, followed by the transport sector, which is expected to double its emissions.

Deforestation has also been one of the Philippines’ main contributors to climate change. From 2001-2022, a total of 1.42 million hectares of tree cover were lost, which contributed to almost 848 metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions. According to the Climate Change Commission, the loss of trees and forests impacts our capacity to absorb carbon and produce fresh air, in addition to intensified biodiversity loss. 

Deforestation also increases the worsening level of greenhouse gases. It is important to note that trees absorb excess carbon dioxide under normal conditions; thus, when trees are purposely cut down or burned, this stored carbon dioxide will be released, causing a drastic increase in greenhouse gas levels. The risk of intense flooding is also at stake during deforestation, as there will be fewer trees to absorb and disperse rainwater. The absence of these trees makes the land less capable of soaking up water, leading to more runoff into rivers and streams, which raises riverbeds with soil remnants and sediments, causing an inability to hold water, resulting in flooding. The soil without trees will hold more water and is most likely to slide, increasing the likelihood of landslides.

Mismanagement of waste, on the other hand, is another contributing factor. It clogs drainage systems and affects public health as it pollutes soil and water. Meanwhile, prevalent open dumpsites still represent a broad challenge, as greenhouse gas emissions from these sites are still growing. 

Impacts of climate change

A study by the Asian Development Bank on the economics of climate change revealed that disregarding climate change risks, the country may lose 6% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annually until 2100. However, losses of up to 4% of GDP may be averted if the country invests 0.5% of its GDP by 2020 in climate change adaptation.  

Moreover, a suggestion from a 2011 Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAG-ASA) report says that the number of days with heavy rainfall will continue to increase with global warming by the year 2020 and 2050. Climate change also imposes threats to natural ecosystems, such as reported by 2016 Low Carbon Monitor Report, that by 2050, 98% of coral reefs in Southeast Asia will die. Philippine seas’ fish catch potential might also be decreased by 50% by 2051-2060 compared to 2001-2010.

Declining rice yields are one of the other effects that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted. According to the International Rice Research Institute's analysis of temperature trends and irrigated field experiments, grain yield decreases by at least 10% for every degree Celsius that the minimum temperature rises during the dry season's growing season. 

As El Niño's effects are exacerbated by global warming, more severe droughts follow; the most recent one struck the nation in 2015–2016. The Department of Agriculture calculated that El Niño-related droughts had a direct impact on 413,456 farmers during this time. Higher sea level follows since the Philippines has had an abnormally high sea level rise of 60 cm, which is around three times the global average of 19 cm. About 13.6 million Filipinos may need to relocate as a result of this increase, which puts 60% of local government units at risk and affects 64 coastal provinces, 822 coastal municipalities, and 25 major coastal cities.

The list also includes water scarcity, which is a global issue fueled by population increase, fast urbanization, and climate change. According to World Resources Institute research, the Philippines will rank 57th out of 167 countries in terms of water stress by 2040 and experience a "high" degree of water shortage. On the other hand, since greater temperatures also lead to an increase in diseases including dengue, malaria, cholera, and typhoid, there is also a risk of more public health problems. 

Labor productivity may also decline, according to a 2016 United Nations study. Heat-related workplace disruptions are expected to reduce working hours by 1% by 2025, 2% by 2050, and 4% by 2085. Lastly, because natural disasters like droughts, floods, and storms disproportionately affect women, frequently at a younger age than men, there are more women in danger and killed. Women are more affected than men by gender-specific and climate-sensitive health outcomes.

Notable disasters

Through the years, the Philippines has been devastated by different disasters, costing irreparable damages to thousands of lives, livelihoods, and the whole economic landscape of the country. From 1990-2020, the Philippines has faced over 565 disasters, including floods, cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, tsunamis, and landslides, killing over 70,000 and causing damage of almost $23 billion. 

1997-1998, when the most severe El Niño occurred, causing drought in almost two-thirds of the country, resulting in a forest fire that destroyed almost 10,000 hectares of natural forest, which also resulted in an estimated P8.46 billion in damage. The Angat reservoir's water levels, which provide drinking water to Metro Manila as well as water for irrigation and power generation, dropped to an average of 32% of normal levels. As a result, authorities turned off irrigation water to 27,000 hectares of agricultural land and implemented water rationing in Metro Manila. The productivity of agriculture and fisheries then fell by 6.6%.

A similar event also hit the country in 2015-2016 that lasted for 18 months and affected almost one-third of the country, where a state of calamity was proclaimed in a total of 65 municipalities, 16 provinces, and 6 cities. By May 2016, the drought caused by El Niño had directly impacted 550,000 hectares and more than 400,000 farmers. Later on, crop pests and illnesses increased as a result of La Niña's subsequent flooding in low-lying farm areas. Agricultural production losses from the most recent El Niño period, which occurred in 2015–2016, totaled $327 million.

Tropical Storm Ondoy (Ketsana) in quick succession by Super Typhoon Pepeng (Parma) in 2009, having a devastating impact on more than 9.3 million people, claimed 956 lives, injured over 700, and left 84 people missing. Although drowning accounted for the bulk of casualties during tropical storm Ondoy, landslides were also cited as a cause of death during Typhoon Pepeng. Combined generated losses and damage were almost $4.38 billion, or roughly 2.7% of GDP.

Supertyphoon Yolanda (Haiyan) killed over 6,300 people in almost 20 affected provinces along the seaboards of Leyte and Samar islands. This brought an estimated P90 billion in damage and left a long-lasting impact on the Philippines as it damaged 1.1 million houses, 33 million coconut trees, which were one of the major sources of livelihood, and forced approximately 2.3 million people into poverty.

As for the latest climate-related issue, the highest-ever heat index at 60°C was recorded in Casiguran, Aurora, based on PAG-ASA. This was classified as Extreme Danger, where heat-related illnesses such as heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and potentially fatal heat stroke are very likely to happen, especially for people with prolonged heat exposure outdoors. Heat index refers to what people perceive or feel as the temperature affecting their body, which measures both the actual air temperature and relative humidity. 

These extreme heat indexes affected both students and teachers as classes were shifted to online modes. It also directly impacts people’s livelihoods, where workers are one of the most vulnerable to heat waves and pollution. “As climate change accelerates, governments and employers are struggling to protect employees,” stated by International Labour Organization (ILO) in a report, as an increasing number of workers are already being exposed to climate-change-related hazards. Additionally, extreme heat also wounds the economy as manifested by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), stating that agriculture and forestry have the biggest losses, shedding almost 318,000 jobs, which resulted in an increase in the unemployment rate of 3.5% to 3.9% from February to March 2024. Likewise, transportation and construction were also affected, with declines in employment from 292,000 to 214,000 in the same time span. 

Mitigation in action

In the early 1990s, the level of attention and resources allocated for climate change mitigation was far less than today, primarily due to a lack of awareness and a lack of both scientific and technological advancements, but in terms of policies, over the years, the country has taken several significant steps in elevating environmental awareness.

Philippine Environment Code of 1977 was established, which focuses more on pollution and natural resource management. An act that made provisions for the protection of the environment in a broader sense. Divided into titles concerning air and noise pollution, Philippine water resources, land management, and the basics of the management and conservation of the country's natural resources. This policy pushed for later climate change efforts.

In 1991, Inter-Agency Committee on Climate Change was created, which functions to formulate policies and response strategies related to climate change, determine the national information requirements relevant to negotiations for the adoption of a central instrument at the UN Conference for Environment and Development, establish working groups to monitor and assess local climate change and its environmental and socio-economic impact in coordination with international agencies, and designate a focal point to serve as the link between the Philippines and the Secretariats of the United Nations Environmental Programs (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

In 1994, the Philippines ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), marking its formal participation in global climate change negotiations, denoting a significant international step in addressing climate change issues. This ratification had a direct influence on policy development and frameworks, pushed the country on international cooperation, enhanced reporting and monitoring, and sparked initiatives and awareness among the general public. Four years later, the Philippines signed the Kyoto Protocol, which was then ratified in 2003. This protocol operationalizes UNFCCC by requiring industrialized nations and economies in transition to restrict and minimize greenhouse gas emissions in line with individually agreed-upon targets.

For the past decade, several laws and policies were implemented by different administrations. These are national measures that aim to preserve the well-being of the environment.

Becoming one of the major environmental laws, Republic Act No. 8749, or the Clean Air Act of 1999, was signed by former president Joseph Estrada. It ensures a “balanced and healthful ecology”, affirming “rhythm and harmony of nature” while emphasizing the “polluters must pay” principle. This law also pushes for effective mitigation programs to prevent the worsening problem of air pollution. Although the law established strict air quality regulations and a number of pollution control methods, it has had difficulty producing the desired results.

This has been seen in Metro Manila's air pollution levels, which recently risen to alarming levels as of late 2024; in certain places, the air quality is "very unhealthy" due to high amounts of particulate matter, especially PM2.5, which poses serious hazards to the heart and lungs. On August 19, 2024, the air quality in certain areas, like Makati, had an Air Quality Index (AQI) of 163 (very unhealthy), while Pateros, Parañaque, and Caloocan had AQIs ranging from 116 to 144 (unhealthy for sensitive groups). These pollution levels indicate that people with respiratory or cardiovascular conditions should stay indoors, and prolonged exposure poses a risk to the general public.

Rapid urbanization and an increase in the number of vehicles are major problems, as they have led to an increase in emissions that exceeds the legal limits. Furthermore, insufficient resources and lax enforcement have made it difficult to effectively monitor and manage pollution, particularly with regard to industrial and vehicular emissions.

Year 2000 when Republic Act 9003 or the Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 was enacted and signed by former president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. This law aims to provide a comprehensive solution to the volume reduction of waste through environment-friendly disposal. Even though some LGUs have successfully implemented initiatives, problems such a lack of financing, inadequate waste treatment facilities, and uneven enforcement across regions have made them less effective overall.

The Commission on Audit (COA) stated that the amount of municipal garbage has increased and is expected to reach 24.5 million metric tons by 2045, primarily as a result of urbanization, overpopulation, and a lack of infrastructure for waste treatment and disposal. This adds up to a major problem in public awareness and behavior, where many Filipinos lack appropriate waste segregation and recycling procedures. Furthermore, even though some LGUs take the initiative to educate communities, it has been challenging to change public perceptions about sustainable waste management techniques. A study also suggests that this national policy will only be effective when accompanied by strong political commitment at the local government level.

Meanwhile, Republic Act No. 9275, or the Clean Water Act of 2004, was signed into law, aiming for extensive protection of all bodies of water from pollution derived from land-based sources. The Integrated Water Quality Management Framework (IWQMF) and a permit system to control wastewater discharge were established as a result of the Clean Water Act. The Laguna Lake Development Authority and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) regulate this system, which requires licenses for facilities that discharge wastewater and charge fees to encourage pollution reduction initiatives.

Nevertheless, enforcement problems, including restrictions and coordination difficulties between government agencies and local government units (LGUs), financial and technical limitations in LGUs, and a lack of suitable sewage and waste treatment facilities in many areas, impede the act’s effectiveness. Furthermore, only under half of Filipinos presently have access to piped water services, according to the World Bank's 2023 report on clean water and sanitation. Meanwhile, more than 60% benefit from human waste treatment and disposal, as well as safely managed sanitation services. These numbers, however, fall short of the regional averages for East Asia Pacific (74% for access to safe water and approximately 70% for access to sanitation). Shifting to energy, Republic Act No. 9513, or the Renewable Energy Act of 2008, was passed, which promotes the creation of the foundation for the swift development and advancement of renewable energy sources, as well as the plan of action to properly utilize their use.

According to the Philippine Electricity Market Corporation (PEMC), the Renewable Energy (RE) sector has reduced the country's energy expenses by Php 4.04 billion, ten years after it was enacted into law. The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) also reported that the country's carbon emissions have decreased by 2.8 million tons due to the RE industry. Also, in 2018, the renewable energy sector produced 23,326 Gigawatt hours, the highest amount ever. 112 Biomass, Geothermal, Solar, Hydropower and Ocean, and Wind (BiGSHOW) power plant locations were also operational and supplying electricity to the grid the following year. These ongoing advancements are helping to make the National Renewable Energy Program's (NREP 2011–2030) goal of tripling the installed capacity of RE from 5,438 megawatts in 2010 to 15,304 megawatt by 2030 a reality.

These laws alone cannot ensure the protection our environment needs. Signing and enacting are just steps along the whole process of preserving the environment; thus, environmental awareness is a must and a need for Filipinos. This was seen through the implementation of Republic Act No. 9512, or the National Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2008, which aims to promote national environmental awareness through environmental education, where the importance of natural resources and the balanced ecology towards sustain

Despite the fact that the act has aided numerous educational programs and events, such as the yearly Environmental Awareness Month in November and increased public awareness of environmental issues, issues persist where implementation differs greatly between regions because of funding constraints, inconsistent curriculum integration, and disparities in the degree of environmental education provided to teachers.

Climate Change Act of 2009

Republic Act No. 9729, or the Climate Change Act, was passed into law, which created notable strides in formulating frameworks for addressing climate-related challenges and institutionalizing climate-focused policies and frameworks. One of these was the appointment of the Climate Change Commission (CCC), a science-based agency, as the head climate policymaking body of the government. It also recognizes that the frontline agencies in the development, strategy, and execution of climate change plans of action are local government institutions.

National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (NFSCC) for 2010-2022 was also started by the CCC following the Climate Change Act, which was then translated into a National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 2011-2018, where it prioritizes food security, water sufficiency, ecological and environmental stability, human security, climate-smart industries and services, sustainable energy, and knowledge and capacity development.

Additionally, the People’s Survival Fund (PSF) was also established under Republic Act No. 10174 to finance climate change adaptation programs, particularly in local government units and highly vulnerable communities. An initial capitalization of Php 1 billion is allotted to aid LGUs and accredited local community organizations. To date, Php 887.63 million has already been allocated to 11 projects and six development grants. On the other hand, significant issues and limitations are still present, hindering the swift processing of project approvals. Two of those were the lack of capacity to prepare bankable projects and the tedious procedures, according to Finance Secretary Benjamin E. Diokno. Other primary issues are slow fund disbursement and bureaucratic delays in LGUs.

Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2017-2022

Duterte Administration’s PDP 2017-2022 recognizes the extensive effects of climate change and the requirement for a national vulnerability and risk assessment for climate disasters to address the effects of natural hazards. 

Under this administration, climate policies were pushed, such as the ratification of the Paris Agreement with a commitment to target the country’s first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). NDC aims for a 75% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions which was tracked by the operationalized National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. Although there has been progress in areas like renewable energy, there are still hindrances in reaching larger objectives because of a lack of financing and the requirement for more technical expertise. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic's consequences as well as other regional socioeconomic factors have caused several mitigation and adaptation initiatives to be implemented later than planned.

RA 11285 or the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act (EEC) was also enacted, which institutionalized energy efficiency and conservation, enhanced the efficient use of energy, and granted incentives to energy efficiency and conservation projects. Through this act, an Interagency Energy Efficiency and Conservation Committee was created to coordinate energy efficiency programs across several government agencies, assisting in streamlining operations and optimizing resources.

As of the end of March 2023, the government has saved Php 205 million by putting EEC measures into place, according to a report released by the Department of Energy (DOE). DOE added that this is equivalent to 20 million kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity savings since the enactment of EEC in 2019. Notably higher savings than before the enactment, which only stood at 5 million kWh or equivalent to Php 51 million from 2017-2019. Despite these positive changes, problems remain such as limited finances, where many small business owners are discouraged from investing in energy-efficient technologies due to the high upfront costs, particularly when budgets are tight and priorities are conflicting. Moreover, CCC Secretary Robert E.A. Borje spelled in his report the administration’s strong political will in its pro-environmental initiatives such as the closure of Boracay for rehabilitation, Manila Bay Rehabilitation Program, and an imposition of a moratorium on new coal-fired power plants. 

“And we’re saying, Mr. President, na hindi tayo nanghihingi ng dole out. Hindi tayo namamalimos. What we are asking for is a responsible partnership because we are least responsible for climate change,” Borje added.

Current administration

“If Greenpeace were to grade Mr. Marcos Jr.’s performance on climate in his first 100 days, he gets failing marks,” said Lea Guerrero, country director of Greenpeace Philippines.

Sitting in office for two years now, incumbent President Ferdinand Marcos Jr.’s words of climate action have never been more directly experienced by Filipinos. Although advancements were made, such as the approval of the Php 539 million worth of climate adaptation projects from PSF, recent events of El Niño and extreme floodings heavily reflect this administration’s shortcomings.

Meanwhile, the House Committee on Climate Change has approved a bill, the Low Carbon Economy Act of 2023, which will set the country on a clear path of establishing a carbon pricing framework and system for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. “It not only sets a clear policy direction for decarbonization but also provides businesses with the tools and flexibility to achieve these goals in a way that supports economic growth. The bill encourages investments in low-carbon technologies that can deliver cost efficiencies for businesses while significantly reducing their environmental impact,” said Congressman Edgar Chatto. 

Another bill has been passed, the Climate Accountability (CLIMA) Act, which could strengthen business accountability against potential pollutive actions. This act, supported by the Commission on Human Rights (CHR), aims to establish policies to combat climate change, protect communities, and impose environmental liability. 

A National Adaptation Plan (NAP) 2023-2050 was also published, a multi-hazard and multi-sectoral guide for the prioritization of actions at the national and subnational levels covering sectors of agriculture, health, biodiversity, human settlements, and cultural heritage. NAPA specifically aims to identify priority high-risk climate change vulnerable areas in the Philippines, provide guidance on integrating adaptation considerations, and harmonize national strategies with international commitments. 

Despite being thorough and in line with scientific findings and climatic projections, the plan's effectiveness depends on ongoing cooperation with LGUs, who carry out adaptation projects at the local level. By encouraging resilience-building strategies suited to local circumstances, the plan's adaptable framework seeks to meet local needs as climate impacts change. However, obstacles such as resource allocation, local capacity, and sustainable finance remain important for its full effectiveness

The current administration might have had advancements on its climate agenda; the results are still to be judged until the end of the term. Nonetheless, President Marcos still vowed to ensure that the Philippines would have a strong voice on climate issues.

Slowing down climate change

Environmental threats, especially climate change, are not something we can undo overnight. According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), omitting greenhouse gas emissions might have flattened the rise in global temperature, but it will remain high for centuries. Furthermore, the United Nations (UN) reiterated the need to transform our actions beyond mere plans and promises. The shift to a more climate-resilient development while achieving net-zero emissions is an immediate measure necessary to secure a more sustainable future for the next generations. 

UN also published some ways individuals can help in mitigating the impacts of climate change, starting with saving water and electricity, walking or using bicycles if applicable, and planting greens. In addition, the reduce, reuse, repair, and recycle principles must be followed to minimize waste while also practicing proper waste disposal. Lastly, advocating environmental awareness could help in disseminating information about the adverse effects of climate change.